Everything about Agricultural totally explained
Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of
plants,
animals and other life forms. The study of agriculture is known as
agricultural science.
Agriculture encompasses many subjects, including
aquaculture,
agronomy,
animal husbandry, and
horticulture. Each of these subjects can be further partitioned: for example,
agronomy includes both
sustainable agriculture and
intensive farming, and animal husbandry includes
ranching,
herding, and
intensive pig farming. Agricultural products include
food (
vegetables,
fruits, and
cereals),
fibers (
cotton,
wool,
hemp,
silk and
flax), fuels (
methane from
biomass,
ethanol,
biodiesel),
cut flowers, ornamental and
nursery plants, tropical fish and birds for the pet trade, both legal and illegal drugs (
biopharmaceuticals,
tobacco,
marijuana,
opium,
cocaine), and other useful materials such as
resins. Recently, crops have been designed to produce
plastic as well as pharmaceuticals.
The
history of agriculture is a central element of
human history, as agricultural progress has been a crucial factor in worldwide
socio-economic change.
Wealth-building and
militaristic specializations rarely seen in
hunter-gatherer cultures are commonplace in agricultural and agro-industrial societies—when farmers became capable of producing food beyond the needs of their own families, others in the
tribe/
village/
City-state/
nation/
empire were freed to devote themselves to projects other than food acquisition.
Jared Diamond, among others, has argued that the development of civilization required agriculture.
As of 2006, an estimated 45 percent of the world's workers are employed in agriculture (from 42% in 1996). However, the relative significance of farming has dropped steadily since the beginning of
industrialization, and in 2006 – for the first time in history – the
services sector overtook agriculture as the
economic sector employing the most people worldwide. Despite the fact that agriculture employs over one-third of the world's population, agricultural production accounts for less than five percent of the
gross world product (an aggregate of all
gross domestic products).
Overview
It has played a key role in the of human
civilization—it is widely believed that the domestication of plants and animals allowed
humans to settle and give up their previous
hunter-gatherer lifestyle during the
Neolithic Revolution. Until the
Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Development of agricultural techniques has steadily increased agricultural productivity, and the widespread diffusion of these techniques during a time period is often called an
agricultural revolution. A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies. In particular, the
Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing
ammonium nitrate made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with
crop rotation and animal
manure less necessary. Synthetic nitrogen, along with mined
rock phosphate,
pesticides and
mechanization, have greatly increased
crop yields in the early 20th century. Increased supply of grains has led to cheaper livestock as well. Further, global yield increases were experienced later in the 20th century when
high-yield varieties of common staple grains such as
rice,
wheat, and
corn were introduced as a part of the
Green Revolution. The Green Revolution exported the technologies (including pesticides and synthetic nitrogen) of the developed world out to the developing world.
Thomas Malthus famously predicted that the Earth wouldn't be able to support its growing population, but technologies such as the Green Revolution have allowed the world to produce a surplus of food.
Many governments have subsidized agriculture to ensure an adequate food supply. These
agricultural subsidies are often linked to the production of certain commodities such as
wheat,
corn,
rice,
soybeans, and
milk. These subsidies, especially when done by
developed countries have been noted as
protectionist, inefficient, and environmentally damaging. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced
productivity, the use of synthetic
fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding,
mechanization,
water contamination, and
farm subsidies. Proponents of
organic farming such as
Sir Albert Howard argued in the early 1900s that the overuse of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers damages the long-term fertility of the soil. While this feeling lay dormant for decades, as
environmental awareness has increased recently there has been a movement towards
sustainable agriculture by some farmers, consumers, and policymakers. In recent years there has been a backlash against perceived
external environmental effects of mainstream agriculture, particularly regarding water pollution, resulting in the
organic movement. One of the major forces behind this movement has been the
European Union, which first certified
organic food in 1991 and began reform of its
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies, also known as
decoupling. The growth of
organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as
integrated pest management and
selective breeding. Recent mainstream technological developments include
genetically modified food.
As of late 2007, several factors have pushed up the price of grain used to feed poultry and dairy cows and other cattle, causing higher prices of wheat (up 58%), soybean (up 32%), and maize (up 11%) over the year. Food
riots have recently taken place in many countries across the world. An
epidemic of stem rust on
wheat caused by race
UG99 is currently spreading across
Africa and into
Asia and is causing major concern. Approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded. In
Africa, if current trends of soil degradation continue, the continent might be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025, according to
UNU's Ghana-based Institute for Natural Resources in Africa.
Practices
Agricultural practices lie on a spectrum dependent upon the intensity and technology of the methods. At the one end lies the
subsistence farmer who farms a small area with limited inputs and produces only enough
food to meet the needs of his or her family. At the other end lies
intensive agriculture which includes traditional labor intensive farming (for example South-East Asia rice paddies), and modern agriculture which includes
industrial agriculture,
organic farming and
sustainable farming. Industrial agriculture involves large fields and/or numbers of animals, high resource inputs (pesticides, fertilizers, etc.), and a high level of
mechanization. These operations achieve
economies of scale and require large amounts of capital in the form of land and machinery.
The twentieth century saw changes in agricultural practice, particularly in
agricultural chemistry and in mechanization. Agricultural chemistry includes the application of chemical fertilizer, chemical insecticides (see
pest control), and chemical
fungicides, analysis of soil makeup and nutritional needs of farm animals.
Mechanization has increased farm efficiency and productivity in most regions of the world, due especially to the
tractor and various "gins" (short for "engine") such as the
cotton gin, semi-automatic
balers and
threshers and, above all, the
combine (see
agricultural machinery). According to the
National Academy of Engineering in the
United States, agricultural mechanization is one of the 20 greatest engineering achievements of the 20th century. Early in the century, it took one American farmer to produce food for 2.5 people. By 1999, due to advances in agricultural technology, a single farmer could feed over 130 people.
Other recent changes in agriculture include
hydroponics,
plant breeding, hybridization,
gene manipulation, better management of soil nutrients, and improved
weed control.
Genetic engineering has yielded crops which have capabilities beyond those of naturally occurring plants, such as higher yields and disease resistance. Modified seeds germinate faster, and thus can be grown on an accelerated schedule. Genetic engineering of plants has proven controversial, particularly in the case of
herbicide-resistant plants.
It has been suggested that genetic engineers may some day develop
transgenic plants which would allow for
irrigation,
drainage,
conservation, sanitary engineering, and maintaining or increasing yields while requiring fewer fossil fuel derived inputs than conventional crops. Such developments would be particularly important in areas which are normally arid and rely upon constant irrigation, and on large scale farms. These possibilities are questioned by ecologists and economists concerned with unsustainable GMO practices such as
terminator seeds, and a January 2008 report shows that GMO practices have failed to address sustainability issues. While there has been some research on sustainability using GMO crops, at least one hyped and promonant multi-year attempt by
Monsanto has been unsuccessful, though during the same period traditional breeding techniques yielded a more sustainable variety of the same crop. Additionally, a survey by the bio-tech industry of subsistence farmers in Africa to discover what GMO research would most benefit sustainable agriculture only identified non-transgenic issues as areas needing to be addressed.
The processing, packing and marketing of agricultural products are closely related activities also influenced by science. Methods of quick-freezing and dehydration have increased the markets for many farm products (see
food preservation and
meat packing industry).
Animals, including horses, mules, oxen, camels, llamas, alpacas, and dogs, are often used to help cultivate
fields, harvest
crops,
wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.
Animal husbandry not only refers to the breeding and raising of animals for meat or to harvest animal products (like milk, eggs, or wool) on a continual basis, but also to the breeding and care of species for work and companionship.
Airplanes, helicopters, trucks, tractors, and combines are used in Western (and, increasingly, Eastern) agriculture for seeding, spraying operations for insect and disease control, harvesting,
aerial topdressing and transporting perishable products. Radio and television disseminate vital weather reports and other information such as market reports that concern farmers. Computers have become an essential tool for farm management.
In recent years, some aspects of intensive
industrial agriculture have been the subject of increasing debate. The widening
sphere of influence held by large seed and chemical companies, meat packers and food processors has been a source of concern both within the farming community and for the general public. Another issue is the type of feed given to some animals that can cause
bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle. There has also been concern over the effect of intensive agriculture on the environment.
The patent protection given to companies that develop new types of seed using
genetic engineering has allowed seed to be licensed to farmers in much the same way that computer software is licensed to users. This has changed the balance of power in favor of the seed companies, allowing them to dictate terms and conditions previously unheard of. The
Indian activist and scientist
Vandana Shiva argues that these companies are guilty of
biopiracy.
Soil conservation and
nutrient management have been important concerns since the 1950s, with the most advanced farmers taking a
stewardship role with the land they use. However, increasing contamination of waterways and wetlands by nutrients like
nitrogen and
phosphorus are concerns that can only be addressed by "enlightenment" of farmers and/or far stricter
law enforcement in many countries.
Increasing consumer awareness of agricultural issues has led to the rise of
community-supported agriculture,
local food movement, "
Slow Food", and commercial
organic farming.
Etymology
The word
agriculture is the English adaptation of Latin
agricultūra, from
ager, "a field", and
cultūra, "
cultivation" in the strict sense of "
tillage of the soil". Thus, a literal reading of the word yields "tillage of a field / of fields".
History
Agriculture was developed at least 10,000 years ago, and it has undergone significant developments since the time of the earliest cultivation. Evidence points to the
Fertile Crescent of the
Middle East as the site of the earliest planned sowing and harvesting of plants that had previously been gathered in the wild. Independent development of agriculture occurred in northern and southern
China, Africa's
Sahel,
New Guinea and several regions of the
Americas. Agricultural practices such as
irrigation,
crop rotation,
fertilizers, and
pesticides were developed long ago but have made great strides in the past century. The
Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing
ammonium nitrate represented a major breakthrough and allowed
crop yields to overcome previous constraints. In the past century agriculture has been characterized by enhanced productivity, the substitution of labor for synthetic fertilizers and pesticides,
selective breeding,
mechanization,
water pollution, and
farm subsidies. In recent years there has been a backlash against the
external environmental effects of conventional agriculture, resulting in the
organic movement.
Ancient origins
Developed independently by geographically distant populations, systematic agriculture first appeared in
Southwest Asia in the
Fertile Crescent, particularly in modern-day
Iraq and
Syria/
Israel. Around 9500 BCE, proto-farmers began to select and cultivate food plants with desired characteristics. Though there's evidence of earlier sporadic use of wild cereals, it wasn't until after 9500 BCE that the eight so-called
founder crops of agriculture appear: first
emmer and
einkorn wheat, then hulled
barley,
peas,
lentils,
bitter vetch,
chick peas and
flax.
By 7000 BCE, small-scale agriculture reached
Egypt. From at least 7000 BCE the
Indian subcontinent saw farming of
wheat and
barley, as attested by archaeological excavation at
Mehrgarh in
Balochistan. By 6000 BCE, mid-scale farming was entrenched on the banks of the
Nile. About this time, agriculture was developed independently in the Far East, with
rice, rather than wheat, as the primary crop.
Chinese and
Indonesian farmers went on to domesticate
mung,
soy,
azuki and
taro. To complement these new sources of
carbohydrates, highly organized net
fishing of rivers, lakes and ocean shores in these areas brought in great volumes of essential
protein. Collectively, these new methods of farming and fishing inaugurated a human population boom dwarfing all previous expansions, and is one that continues today.
By 5000 BCE, the
Sumerians had developed core agricultural techniques including large scale intensive cultivation of land,
mono-cropping, organized
irrigation, and use of a specialized
labour force, particularly along the waterway now known as the
Shatt al-Arab, from its
Persian Gulf delta to the confluence of the
Tigris and
Euphrates. Domestication of wild
aurochs and
mouflon into
cattle and
sheep, respectively, ushered in the large-scale use of animals for food/fiber and as beasts of burden. The
shepherd joined the farmer as an essential provider for
sedentary and semi-
nomadic societies.
Maize,
manioc, and
arrowroot were first domesticated in the Americas as far back as 5200 BCE.
(External Link
) The
potato,
tomato,
pepper,
squash, several varieties of
bean,
Canna,
tobacco and several other plants were also developed in the New World, as was extensive
terracing of steep hillsides in much of
Andean South America.
In later years, the
Greeks and
Romans built on techniques pioneered by the Sumerians but made few fundamentally new advances. Southern Greeks struggled with very poor soils, yet managed to become a dominant society for years. The Romans were noted for an emphasis on the cultivation of crops for
trade.
Middle Ages
During the Middle Ages, Muslim farmers in North Africa and the Near East developed and disseminated agricultural technologies including irrigation systems based on
hydraulic and
hydrostatic principles, the use of machines such as
norias, and the use of water raising machines, dams, and reservoirs. They also wrote location-specific farming manuals, and were instrumental in the wider adoption of crops including sugar cane, rice, citrus fruit, apricots, cotton, artichokes, aubergines, and saffron. Muslims also brought lemons, oranges, cotton, almonds, figs and sub-tropical crops such as bananas to Spain.
The invention of a
three field system of crop rotation during the
Middle Ages, and the importation of the Chinese-invented
moldboard plow, vastly improved agricultural efficiency.
Modern era
After 1492, a global exchange of previously local crops and livestock breeds occurred. Key crops involved in this exchange included the
tomato,
maize,
potato,
cocoa and
tobacco going from the New World to the Old, and several varieties of wheat,
spices,
coffee, and
sugar cane going from the Old World to the New. The most important animal exportations from the Old World to the New were those of the horse and dog (dogs were already present in the pre-Columbian Americas but not in the numbers and breeds suited to farm work). Although not usually food animals, the horse (including
donkeys and
ponies) and dog quickly filled essential production roles on western hemisphere farms.
By the early 1800s, agricultural techniques, implements, seed stocks and
cultivars had so improved that yield per land unit was many times that seen in the Middle Ages. With the rapid rise of
mechanization in the late 19th and 20th centuries, particularly in the form of the
tractor, farming tasks could be done with a speed and on a scale previously impossible. These advances have led to efficiencies enabling certain modern farms in the United States,
Argentina,
Israel,
Germany, and a few other nations to output volumes of high quality produce per land unit at what may be the practical limit.
In 2005, the
agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, accounting for almost one-sixth world share followed by the EU, India and the USA, according to the
International Monetary Fund. Economists measure the
total factor productivity of agriculture and by this measure agriculture in the United States is roughly 2.6 times more productive than it was in 1948.
Crops
Crop statistics
Specific crops are cultivated in distinct
growing regions throughout the world. In millions of metric tons, based on
FAO estimates.
Further Information
Get more info on 'Agricultural'.
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